Use A DAC To Bias Your Varactor Diode

Varactor (or “varicap”) diodes are used primarily in radio-frequency (RF) circuits to provide a capacitance that can be varied by changing the applied voltage. These types of diodes often are used for tuning circuits, such as RF oscillators and filters found in wireless applications like wireless microphones and radios. Designers, then, should know about the benefits of using a nonvolatile digital-to-analog converter (DAC) to provide the biasing voltage of a varactor diode used as a voltage-controlled capacitor.

The varactor diode is operated under reverse bias, which creates a depletion zone around the P-N junction. Changing the level of the reverse bias changes the thickness of the depletion region and, thus, the effective capacitance of the diode. Increasing voltage causes a decrease in capacitance.

Varactor diodes are specified with a nominal capacitance value and the range of capacitance that can be achieved with a maximum and minimum voltage level. Increasing the bias voltage range increases the capacitance range available, but designers can also look for varactors with a larger capacitance- to-voltage ratio.

A convenient solution for creating a varying bias voltage is to use a DAC. Most DACs have an output voltage range of 0 V to +5.5 V. If a higher voltage bias is required, though, then a high-voltage DAC can be used. However, it may be more cost-effective to use a low-cost, high-voltage operational amplifier in a non-inverting configuration to provide level shifting of the output voltage from a common 5.5-V DAC.

 

The LC-tank circuit portion of a voltage-controlled oscillator allows for FM modulation in wireless microphones and radios. Its back-to-back varactor configuration minimizes the effects of RF modulation.

Using a DAC does introduce sources of potential error. The varactor is affected by any form of amplitude variation of the bias voltage, resulting in an undesired shift in capacitance. Deterministic errors can be accounted for when using the microcontroller to program the DAC output voltage. The primary sources of error that should be considered include varactor nonlinearity, offset errors, and DAC integral nonlinearity (INL). RF modulation may also be caused by voltage induced from a noise source – perhaps from an antenna in the system. The figure shows an LC-tank circuit portion of a voltage-controlled oscillator. This circuit allows for FM modulation in the aforementioned wireless microphone or radio.

Here, a back-to-back varactor configuration minimizes the effects of RF modulation. If a varying signal is injected, the bias across one diode increases as the other decreases, keeping overall capacitance unchanged. Note that the two diodes are in series with each other, so capacitance is half of a single varactor setup.

To also prevent RF signals from affecting the circuitry outside the tuning circuit, the bias voltage is fed through an isolation resistor or an RF choke. There are other benefits to using a DAC to bias a varactor diode. For example, multiple-output-channel DAC devices can be used in a multistage application. Additionally, in a four-channel DAC, three channels could potentially be used for separate band-pass filters for low-, mid-, and high-frequency filtering. The fourth output could be used for offset voltage calibration elsewhere in the circuit, or it could be turned off when it isn’t in use. Space and design time can be saved by avoiding having to set up separate biasing schemes.

Some DACs, such as the MCP4728, also offer on-board nonvolatile memory, which can store configuration data such as output-voltage levels and channel status (on/off). This enables the device to be reset or powered up into a known set state, which could allow a pre-programmed tune to be stored. The tune could be recalled when a desired event or input occurs or when power is lost and restored.

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Use LA1800 Portable AM and FM Radio

This portable AM and FM radio circuit is designed using the LA1800 IC and some other external components. As you can see in this circuit diagram the LA1800 manufactured by Sanyo Semiconductors , require few additional components. The LA1800 am FM portable radio circuit needs to be powered from a 3 volt DC power supply circuit.

You can use an 3 volt battery. This radio receiver circuit has a low current dissipation of 5.6mA for FM band and 3.2mA for AM band .Also the output signal is driven into earphone speakers , but you can use an additional speaker ( in that case you need to connect an additional small power audio amplifier).

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Active Audio System Use three TDA2052

This active audio audio system use three TDA2052 chips and 5 speakers ( one woofer, two tweeters and two midranges ) .For this TDA2052 active audio system we need dual 20 volts power supply and five volts supply for the stand by function.To the input of the every audio IC chip is placed an audio filter for filtering the audio signal for used speakers ( low pass for woofer , high pass for midranges and tweeters )

Active Audio System Circuit Diagram

The subwoofer plays the 20 to 300 Hz frequency range, while the remaining 300 Hz to 20KHz are sent to two separate channels with stereo effect.If one of the amplifier is affected by clipping distortion the others amplifiers are not affected .

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How to Use IC 741 as a Comparator

Weve been using this IC probably since we were kids, I am referring to this wonderful little IC 741, through which virtually any circuit designing becomes feasible. It almost alone is able to handle many complex functions and makes circuit configuration very easy, thats why its one of the favorite chips not only with the new electronic hobbyists but also with the experienced engineers.
Here we are discussing one of the simple application circuits of this IC where it is being configured as a comparator, no surprise the following applications can be modified in numerous different ways as per the user preference.
As the name suggests, comparator means the function of comparing between a particular set of parameters or may be just a couple of magnitudes as in the case.

Since in electronics we are primarily dealing with voltages and currents, these factors become the sole agents and are used for operating or regulating or controlling the various components involved.

In the proposed design, where the IC 741 is being used as a comparator, basically different voltage levels are used as the referring and comparaing parameters by the IC.

The two input pins named the inverting (with a minus sign)and the non-inverting pin (with a + sign) become the sensing inputs of the IC 741.

When used as a comparator, one of the pins out of the two is applied with a fixed reference voltage while the other pin is fed with the voltage whose level needs to be monitored.

The monitoring of the above voltage is done with reference to the fixed voltage thats been applied to the other complementary pin.

Therefore if the voltage which is to be monitored goes above or falls below the fixed reference threshold voltage, the output reverts state or changes its original condition or changes its output voltage polarity.

Letsanalyze the above explanation by studying the following example circuit of a light sensor switch.

Looking at the circuit diagram we find the circuit configured in the following way:

The IC 741 is at the center.

Its Pin #7 which is the +supply pin is connected to the positive rail, similarly its pin #4 which is the negative supply pin is connected to the negative or rather the zero supply rail of the power supply.

The above couple of pin connections powers the IC so that it can carry on with its intended functions.

Now as discussed earlier, pin #2 of the IC is connected at the junction of two resistors whose ends are connected to the power supply positive and negative rails. This arrangement of the resistors is called a potential divider, meaning the potential or the voltage level at the junction of these resistors will be approximately the half of the supply voltage, so if the supply voltage is 12, the junction of the potential divider network will be 6 volts and so on.

If the supply voltage is well regulated, the above voltage level will also be well fixed and therefore can be used as the reference voltage for the pin #2.

So if we take 6 as the junction voltage of the resistors, this voltage becomes the reference voltage at pin #2 which means the IC will monitor and respond to any voltage that might go above this level.

The sensing voltage which is to be monitored is applied to pin #3 of the IC, in our example it is via an LDR. The pin #3 is connected at the junction of the LDR pin and a preset terminal.
That means this junction again becomes a potential divider, whose voltage level this time is not fixed because the LDR value cannot be fixed and will vary with the ambient light conditions.
Now suppose you want the circuit to sense the LDR value at some point just around when dusk falls, you adjust the preset such that the voltage at pin #3 or at the junction of the LDR and the preset just crosses above the 6 volt mark.

When this happens the value rises above the fixed reference at pin #2, this informs the IC about the sense voltage rising above the refefnce voltage at pin #2, this instantly reverts the output of the IC which changes to positive from its initial zero voltage position.

The above change in the state of the IC from zero to positive, triggers the relay driver stage which switches ON the load or the lights which might be connected to the relevant contacts of the relay.

Mind you, the values of the resistors connected to pin #2 may also be altered for altering the sensing threshold of pin #3, so they are all inter-depended, giving you a wide angle of variation of the circuit parameters.

Another feature of the R1 and R2 is that it avoids the need of using a dual polarity power supply making the involved configuration very simple and neat.

As shown below, the above explained operation response can be just reversed by interchanging the input pin positions of the IC or, by considering another option where we only inter-change the positions of the LDR and the preset.

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